Rudolf diesel

Rudolf Diesel was born on March 18, 1858 in Paris France the second of three children of Elise and Theodor diesel. Diesel spent is early childhood in France but because of the Franco-Prussian war in 1870 his family was forced to leave and moved to London. At 12 years old his parents sent him to live with his aunt and uncle because they wanted him to attend royal country trade school where his uncle was a math teacher and to become fluent in German. At age 14 he wrote a letter to his parents saying how he wanted to be an engineer after finishing his education at top f his class, and then he enrolled at the new industrial school of Augsburg.Two years later he received a merit scholarship to attend the Royal Bavarian Polytechnic of Munich which he accepted instead of listening to his parents and starting work. Diesel could not graduate in July 1879 because he fell ill to typhoid (a bacterial disease resulting from ingestion of food or water exposed to feces). While he was waiting to tak e his exam he got engineering experience at sluzer bros machine works. After graduating in 1880 diesel went to work for his college professor Carl Von Linde o develop a refrigeration and ice factory, and became the director of the plant one year later.In 1890 he moved to Berlin where he started working toward better fuel economy for steam engines, he tried using ammonia vapor to gain his desired fuel economy but the engine blew up during testing. Later he tried to increase fuel economy by using the Carnot cycle which led him to his own theory of compression ignition engines, in these engines the fuel was not put into the cylinder until the end of the compression stroke and the fuel was ignited by the high temperatures from ompression.He obtained multiple patents for his design in the United States and Europe. After boarding a boat in 1913 to attend a meeting he was missing when the boat docked. A couple days later they found his body in the ocean but let the body back to sea after g etting his id card and other things he was carrying. I think he was murdered because Hubert akroyd Stuart had put out a patent a couple years before diesel for a compression ignition engine but was told that diesels was slightly different so it was 0k. This is a clear motive for revenge!!

Why Should We Use Solar Power Environmental Sciences Essay

There are assorted beginnings of energy. We use heat energy obtained by the firing fuels like wood, coal, kerosine or cookery gas for cooking our nutrient.The energy fuels like gasoline and Diesel is used to run auto, coachs, trucks and train. Diesel is besides used to supply energy to run the pump for irrigation in agribusiness. Electrical energy is used for illuming the bulbs, tubings and to run wireless, telecasting, family contraptions, electric trains etc. Solar energy is besides used for cooking the nutrient, illuming the bulbs etc. In fact all over activities use energy in one signifier or the other. Energy is indispensable for our endurance in this universe The energy obtained from the Sun is known as solar energy. Sun is the beginning of energy. The Sun radiate more energy in one second than the people have used the since the beginning of the life. the energy radiated by the Sun comers from the Sun. the H atom in Sun ; s nucleus combine to organize one He atom. but the mass of He atom is less the four H atoms. It means mass has lost during the atomic merger.This lost mass is emitted as beaming energy. The solar energy takes merely 8 proceedingss to go the 93 million stat mis to the Earth. Solar energy travels with the velocity of visible radiation. This heat and light energy is radiated by Sun in all waies in the signifier of energy. The Sun has been radiating an tremendous sum of energy at the present rate for about 5 billion Old ages and will go on radiating energy at that rate for about five billion old ages more. Since Sun is really far from the Earth merely little fractions of energy radiated by the Sun reaches the outer bed of Earth ‘s ambiance. A little less than half of solar energy which falls on the fringe of the ambiance really reaches the surface of Earth. The solar energy which reaches the Earth is absorbed by land, H2O organic structures and workss. The solar energy trapped by the land and H2O organic structures causes many phenomena in nature like air currents, storms, rain, snowfall and sea moving ridges etc. Plants utilize the solar energy to fix the nutrient by the procedure of photosynthesis. History OF SOLAR ENERGY: As early in the seventh century B.C, people use amplifying glass to concentrate the visible radiation of Sun into beams so they would do wood to catch fire. Many of hundred old ages ago a scientist used heat from a solar aggregator to do a watercourse to drive watercourse engine. Solar boilers are invented by Charles Greely Abbott an American astrophysicist, in 1936. The solar H2O warmer gained popularity at the same clip in Florida, California and Southwest. Today people use heat energy to heat edifices and H2O to bring forth electricity. [ 3 ] SOLAR CONSTANT: The sum of energy received per second by one square metre country near the Earth infinite at an mean distance between the Sun and Earth is called solar constant.The energy near the Earth recieves from the Sun is about 1.4 kilojoules persecond persquare metre and this measure is known as solar constant.The mean distance between the Sun and Earth is astronomical unit ( 1.495*1011m ) . The solar invariable is represented as Ion. [ 4 ] SOLAR COLLECTERS: Capturing the solar energy and putiing in usage a hard work, because Sun does non direct a big sum of energy at one topographic point. The energy emitted by Sun at one topographic point depends upon certain conditions like the clip of the twenty-four hours, season, latitude of country and the clarity or cloudness of the sky.A solar aggregator is the manner roll uping the heat from the Sun. Devicess for capturing the Sun ‘s energy over a big country and concentrating it on a little country, thereby concentrating it. In this manner it can be made to supply highly high temperatures, used to bring forth steam that will used to transport out a chemical reaction to bring forth a portable fuel such as H. Solar aggregators may be curved dishes. Solar aggregator allows the sunshine in through the glass or plastic and the Sun visible radiation is changed into the heat energy. A really good illustration of solar aggregator is a auto standing in sunshine. On cheery twenty-four hours, a closed auto becomes a solar aggregator. Light energy base on ballss through the window glass and absorbed by the auto ‘s inside and converted into the heat energy. The auto ‘s spectacless do non let the light come out. That ‘s why green house stay warm around a twelvemonth. [ 5 ] [ 5 ] PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL ( SOLAR CELL ) : A photovoltaic cell is a device which converts the sunlight energy ( solar energy ) into electrical energy.these are besides known as solar cell or PV. The photovoltaic word has come from exposure agencies light and galvanic means a measurment of electricity. A individual solar cell can bring forth merely a little sum of electricity. To acquire a more electrical power a group of many cells joined together. The group of solar cell is known as solar panel or solar cell panel. Photovoltaic ‘s have long had many applications, such as PV-powered orbiters, tickers, and reckoners. The launch of Vanguard 1 in 1958, PV engineering is the energy beginning of pick for such extraterrestrial applications, orbiters and infinite investigations. [ 1 ] SOLAR Cookers: The solar cooker is the device is used to cook the nutrient by using the heat energy radiant by the Sun. It uses sunlight as beginning of energy. A box type solar cooker can be used to cook merely those nutrient stuffs which require slow warming. It can non be used for those stuffs which require high warming. For illustration it can non be used for baking and frying. It is used to cook the nutrient stuffs like rice, pulsations and veggies. The high temperature can be produced with the aid of concave mirror reflector. [ 6 ] [ 7 ] SOLAR SPACE Heating: It means heating the infinite inside a edifice. Today many places use solar energy for infinite warming. There are two general types of solar infinite heating systems: Passive Solar Heating Active Solar Heating Passive Solar Heating: In inactive solar warming, the edifice itself serves as a aggregator of solar thermic energy. Greenhouses made of glass or other crystalline stuffs are possibly the most good know application of inactive solar. A inactive solar house does non utilize any particular mechanical equipment to reassign the heat that the house collects on cheery yearss. A inactive solar place Acts of the Apostless as closed auto does. Sunlight passes through a place ‘s Windowss and is absorbed in the walls and floors of the houses. Active solar Heating: When solar energy is non plenty an active solar place uses mechanical equipment, such as pumps and an outside beginning of energy to assist heat the house Active systems use particular solar aggregators that look like boxes covered with glass. Dark-colored metal home bases inside the boxes absorb the sunshine and alteration it into heat. Solar concentrating mirror dishes CHALLENGES AND ECONOMICS: A A A The chief challenge confronting solar energy is that the Sun shines merely during the twenty-four hours or we can utilize solar energy merely in the presence of Sun. Summer is the clip of least energy demand for Alaskans, although this is besides the clip of twelvemonth with daytime. On norm, the sunniest parts of Alaska receive less than half of the sum of the entire solar energy throughout the twelvemonth. It is really less as compared the sunniest topographic points in the southwesterly US. Besides, large-scale storage methods for solar energy are non available today. Electric storage batteries are able to hive away merely little sums of electricity.A PV faculties typically produce the most power during the portion of twenty-four hours with the highest electricity demand, and PV-produced electricity remains really expensive compared to other beginnings of electricity. For most place applications, PV systems besides require expensive battery and AC inverters. A A A Solar thermal energy could be cost effectual for peculiarly in passive-solar designed places. For place installings, there are a limited sum of qualified commercial installers of solar energy equipment. A The on the job life-time of a PV faculty is around 40 old ages, the energy payback clip of such a faculty is anyplace from 1 to 30 old ages, and normally under five, depending on the type and the sum of Sun where it is used. This means that PV panels can be net energy manufacturers, and can â€Å" reproduce † themselves up to more than 30 times over their life-time. [ 8 ] ADVANTAGE OF SOLAR ENERGY: 1. Renewable Beginning of Energy: Solar energy is a renewable resource of energy. It can non be utilized at dark or on nebulose yearss, its handiness may be by and large relied upon twenty-four hours after twenty-four hours. The solar energy supply will last every bit long as the Sun. 2.Non Polluting Soruce Solar energy is non-polluting beginning of energy. It does non foul our air by let go ofing C dioxide, N oxide, sulfur dioxide into the ambiance like many traditional signifiers of electrical coevalss does. 3.Saves Money: The energy from the Sun is free. Solar energy does non necessitate any fuel. It reduces the electricity measure. The usage of solar energy indirectly reduces wellness costs. The supply of solar energy is non affected by demand of fuel. It is the inexpensive beginning of energy. The nest eggs are immediate and for many old ages to come. 4. Environmentally Friendly: Solar Energy is clean, renewable and sustainable, assisting to protect our environment. It does non foul our air by let go ofing C dioxide, N oxide, sulfur dioxide or quicksilver into the ambiance like many traditional signifiers of electrical coevalss does. It is non responsible for planetary heating, acerb rain or smog. It contributes to the lessening of harmful green house gas emanations. 5. The Need of No or Low Care: Solar Energy systems are maintenance free and will last for decennaries. Solar energy systems operate mutely, have no moving parts, do non let go of violative odors and do non necessitate you to add any fuel. We can acquire easy more solar panels in the hereafter. 6. Solar cells have a long life period. 7. It is used for cooking the nutrient saves cherished fuels like coal, kerosine and LPG. When nutrient is cooked in cooker in the presence of sunshine its foods do non acquire destroyed. Disadvantage OF SOLAR ENERGY: Besides such of import advantages, there are a few drawbacks of solar energy every bit good. The chief disadvantage is the cost of put ining a solar energy system, mostly because of the high cost of the semi-conducting stuffs used in constructing one. The most obvious one is that solar power can non be created at dark due to the absence of Sun. The engineering progresses bing system could dawdle behind and there is demand to recycle the PV. The installing of solar power equipments such as cells/panels is really expensive. It is a weak energy beginning as compared to fossil fuels. REFRENCES: [ 1 ] Pyhsics by Lakhmir Singh, Manjit Kaur [ 2 ] hypertext transfer protocol: //www.energyquest.ca.gov/story/chapter15.html [ 3 ] SOLAR ENERGY by HP GARG [ 4 ] hypertext transfer protocol: //www.science.org.au/nova/005/005glo.htm [ 5 ] hypertext transfer protocol: //www.need.org/needpdf/infobook_activities/SecInfo/SolarS.pdf [ 6 ] ecell.k12.hi.us/ †¦ /solar_cookers.htm [ 7 ] hypertext transfer protocol: //lsa.colorado.edu/summarystreet/texts/solar.html [ 8 ] hypertext transfer protocol: //ecofuture.net/solarpanels/2009/08/17/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-solar-power-for-home.html hypertext transfer protocol: //www.solarhome.org/infoadvantagesofsolarenergy.html

Diabetes and Globalization Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Diabetes and Globalization - Research Paper Example The Harvard School of Public Health (n.d) defines globalization as "Inexorable spread of knowledge, technology, culture, and capital from country to country" (para. 1). In layman's terms, diabetes is caused by a disproportion of energy in the body whereby very little calories are burned by the body. In other words, physical activity is imperative when it comes to preventing diabetes. Globalization has increased trade between countries and has thus made food more available at cheaper prices. The cost and availability of food shape people's preferences and can contribute to diabetes (Harvard School of Public Health, para. 5). This, in other words, increases people's access to high caloric foods which are the major contributors to diabetes. Other than shaping people's food preferences, globalization has made it easier for international fast-food companies to spread from the developed countries to developing countries (Harvard School of Public Health, para. 5). This further increases peo ple's access to fattening foods creating an increase in obesity and diabetes.   Candib (2007) asserts that globalization goes hand in hand with urbanization. People are increasingly moving to urban areas in search of better business and job opportunities. When people move to urban areas, they end up adopting a sedentary lifestyle. Subsequently, they have no time for cooking a healthy meal by the time they get home due to exhaustion. In fact, most people prefer buying food from restaurants and fast food outlets than to cooking.  Ã‚  

The Risks of a Nuclear Power Plant Facility Essay

The Risks of a Nuclear Power Plant Facility - Essay Example Considering the concept in the light of nuclear power plant, the focus will be on the detrimental effects accompanied by the presence of such a facility. It deals with the unprecedented effects of a potentially precarious activity or event that has not been eliminated or avoided. The radioactive material produced in the nuclear power plants exposes humans to the risk of cancer (Clapp, 2005). Risk Management and its Relevance after the Occurrence of a Disaster Because of the potentiality of a risk to produce undesirable and hazardous results, policies and strategies should be put in place to manage them whenever they occur. This brings in the concept of risk management. Risk management entails a well-structured and organized process of risk identification, and the subsequent measurement of the risk and enactment of systems to handle it. The process can be analyzed through the stages of hazard identification, assessment of the risk, control of the risk, and the monitoring and evaluation of the risk. A hazard is something potentially harmful to the people environment or the property. Any hazardous material in whichever form it is should have their effects analyzed. A nuclear power plant utilizes Uranium that is hazardous when mishandled. There are other radioactive elements that are produced during the reaction process, all of which should be disposed well. Otherwise, the accompanying effects may have a profound effect to the society and the environment for generations. In order to identify hazards in a nuclear plant facility, nuclear reactors incidences should be well documented through use of appropriate report forms. Other strategies will include conducting self-inspection, doing regular maintenance checks, regular observations and consultations, knowledge sharing with other nuclear plants operators and research institutions and seeking of specialists to assist in specific areas. Risk assessment is the second critical process in risk management. Upon realization of a risk, it is imperative that the likelihood of risk occurrence is evaluated. The likelihood of occurrence is a factor of the probability and frequency (Cohen, 2005). Therefore, the probability of a risk should be considered, in the light of the Fukushima Diiachi plant incidence it is evident that the disaster was unprecedented. Considering this fact, the probability and frequency of tsunami can predict the trend in which such disasters can occur. An evaluation of the underlying consequences should also be looked at. The effects of the radioactive material produced in the nuclear plants should be assessed and proper strategies put in place to dispose them and to ensure that in case of a disasters like earthquakes, tornadoes, and tsunamis among others the harmful material will not spread to harm the environment. In risk assessment it is also important to classify the magnitude of the risk, is it extreme medium or low risk. More focus is given to extreme risks without assuming the low risks. Aft er the risk is assessed, then control measures should be put in place. The adoption of risk control measures should be done in a manner that the most risky situations are given prevalence. In risk control, the main objective is to eliminate the risk, a situation that is not possible instantly. However, efforts should be made to reduce the risk to an extent that its chances remain negligible. A

Please read the second half(starting from chapter 4) of the book ''War Essay

Please read the second half(starting from chapter 4) of the book ''War Is a Force That Gives Us Meaning'' of Chris Hedges and pr - Essay Example I can understand why the media would work with the military and lie or over-sensationalize the war. First, it is easier for them to do what the military tells them to do, rather than put up a fight and face what I can only guess is an unpleasant punishment – or at least a one way ticket home. But the press also has hidden motives: war makes them money. When a war breaks out, like when the USA invaded Afghanistan right after 9/11, people were glued to their TVs. People were watching CNN and all the commercials for products that came on in between the latest war updates. Reporters come back from war and write books – just like Chris Hedges did – that make them money. Why is the media not talking much right now about the war in Afghanistan or the war in Iraq? People grew tired of seeing it on their TVs. The wars have become like a TV show that has been on the air for too long and no one watches it anymore. So the media doesn’t report on it much. Where I canno t really agree with Hedges is his belief that Americans see war as entertainment.

The Role of Cognitive and affective conflict in early implementation Essay

The Role of Cognitive and affective conflict in early implementation of activity - based cost management - Essay Example The article is an empirical study of the problems concerning the implementation of activity-based cost management (ABCM), particularly during its introductory phase, as the new system impacts on the behavioural element in the organization. Two conflicts are apparently engendered when ABCM is newly implemented – there is the cognitive conflict and the affective conflict. The study tries to discover empirical evidence, through a survey of 56 senior managers representing as many manufacturing companies that have adopted the use of ABCM in their organizations. Through the use of regression and correlation statistics, the results of the survey are expected to yield insights into the relationship between conflict constructs and the seleted ABCM implementation factors. Through this study, the researcher hopes to gain insight into how manufacturing companies may benefit, financially and operationally, from activity-based cost management, while mitigating the adverse effects and enhanc ing the beneficial effects of behavioural considerations attendant to the change. The title is somewhat long-winded, but it does convey a good idea of the topic of the research study. It conveys the subject of how employees behave when change is introduced in an organization. It also captures the interest of the business student to know more about what activity-based cost management is and why it would result in behavioural conflict. From the point of view of managers, the title immediately hints that this study could provide useful insight into best practices in the management of change, in particular regarding activity-based cost management. The abstract is particularly well written. The dilemma addressed by the study is described in a way that could be easily understood by readers with a reasonable familiarity with business organizations. Hands-on managers

Journal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 31

Journal - Essay Example Moreover I got to know how patient’s data is updated in the computers to make useful efficient records with respect to patients’ demographics. To me, it was crucial observation as I got to know how nurses work with patients and other staff to work for a common goal of achieving efficiency in health care. On the 19th, the morning at the clinic brought me the experience of working with the office manager. Objective was to sift the clinic staff, remove employees from records that have left the staff and update new names. The same session also marked ordering clinic and office supplies. This helped me learn how clinics are organized and how various tasks are managed. The last session for the week included a discussion with my preceptor regarding co-payments. We discussed on batching a process on documenting the copayments. This fruitful discussion also included how charge tickets or super bills, the bills that patients need if they have to reimburse their money when they have insurance (Flores, 1999). The discussion also included ways to send out these super-bills for insurance Journal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 27 Journal - Essay Example I’ve been disappearing ever since† (1). â€Å"Rose of Sharon is a big woman, about seven feet tall if you’re measuring overall effect and about five feet tall if you are only talking about the physical. She is a Yakama Indian of Wishran variety. Junior is a Colville†¦He’s got those big cheekbones that are like planets with little moons orbiting them†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (2). I’m talking about the Heaven where my legs are waiting for me†¦.my legs will probably run away from me when I get to heaven. And how will I ever catch them? You have to get your arms strong †¦.so that you can run on your hands† (7). â€Å"Lonesome for Indians†¦. Big Heart’s is an all-Indian bar. Nobody knows how or why Indians migrate to one bar and turn it into an official Indian bar. But Big Heart’s has been an Indian bar for twenty-three years† (9). This passage underpins the perception that Jackson had a more complicated and poorly understood way of life. Hence, the mistakes of his past continue to haunt him, and this passage exposes the sufferings he caused, and the anxieties this causes him to feel. He realizes how reckless he was, and the description of the â€Å"I didn’t break hearts into pieces overnight. I broke them slowly and carefully†, provides a concrete detail that allows the reader to come to the same realization. The syntax of this passage highlights the predicament of homelessness among Spokane Indians in Seattle. Their way of life is vanishing. In addition, the plainness and simplicity of the sentences forms a somber tone suitable for the plight it describes. The function of this humor is to break from the monotony and the lengthy conversations. Alexie has applied such humor, in order to create an element of surprise about Jackson grandmother character, and which is intertwined in expectations plus misdirection from the norm of the story. The intention is to make a memorable character. This passage is interesting, since Jackson is saying it, so as to

Film analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Film analysis - Essay Example This situation is thematically depicted in the 1992 film â€Å"A Few Good Men† under the screenwriting of Aaron Sorkin and direction by Rob Reiner. Basically, â€Å"A Few Good Men† presents how the intertwined lives of military lawyers Lt. Daniel â€Å"Danny† Kaffee (Tom Cruise) and Lt. Commander JoAnne Galloway (Demi Moore) would be faced with dilemmatic crisis between the duty to abide by orders and the humanitarian responsibility of acting in righteousness to reveal the truth and save the innocent colleagues. In the story, two men of the U.S. Marines distinguished as Pfc. Louden Downey and Lance Cpl. Harold Dawson are alleged to have committed murder on fellow Pfc. William Santiago at the Guantanamo Bay Naval Base. As Kaffee takes charge to defend the side of Downey and Dawson, during the course of investigation, he and Galloway are bound to learn of the ‘code red’ issued by a high-ranking officer who powerfully commands the naval base at Guantana mo. According to Capt. Whitaker, â€Å"A Marine corporal named Dawson illegally fires a round of his weapon over the fence line and into Cuban territory† (Memorable) and Santiago is perceived the risk of becoming a whistleblower to the incident so rather than granting the requested transfer off the base, he is to be kept on Guantanamo ground for training under the supervision of Lt. Jonathan Kendrick (Kiefer Sutherland). Kaffee figures, nevertheless, that Col. Nathan R. Jessup (Jack Nicholson) orders Kendrick the ‘code red’ via Downey and Dawson where Capt. Whitaker particularly confesses in evidence â€Å"Pfc. William Santiago threatens to rat on Dawson to the Naval Investigative Service -- Dawson, and another member of his squad Pfc. Louden Downey, go into Santiago's barracks room, tie him up, stuff a rag down his throat -- An hour later Santiago's dead -- The attending physician says the rag was treated with some kind of toxin† (Memorable). To analyze, Kaffee’s role as a seemingly unscrupulous junior Navy lawyer known to have not at the time gained pertinent trial-on-court experience is utilized to the advantage of Jessup though it is not meant to be divulged as such due to the fact that it only serves being a cover-up. Kaffee, in which case, is expected to understand this purpose and not ever question his disposition on transacting plea bargains which have been his normal line of task even with the assignment of defending the position of his clients who must be made to admit the sole fault of causing Santiago’s death. At the expense of Downey and Dawson, hence, the court proceedings with foul play should be carried out in favor of Jessup who is apparently the principal villain of the story. Then the turning point comes to Kaffee and Galloway as a challenge of whether to get by the typical rule of following instructions or protect the reputation of the two U.S. Marines from unjust ruin. This time, the inexperienced l awyer is caught between two opposing decisions in which choosing the right one would necessarily improve his unfulfilled character. In a conversation with his friend Capt. Ross, Kaffee expresses â€Å"

Reflective Journal Personal Statement Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Reflective Journal - Personal Statement Example This is reflective journal that I maintained throughout the last semester. I am a senior nurse working in a multispecialty hospital, where different aspects of nursing are embodied regularly during practice. I am senior nurse, so my work also included teaching a group in my field work. As is evident, this teaching session involved learning, and my job was also to learn in parallel. The audience was student and registered nurses, and during this semester, I also had to attend teaching sessions taken by other registered nurses. Therefore, it could be a dual process, where the teacher has bilateral opportunity to learn as a faculty as well as a student When I decided to keep this journal as a means for reflective practice, I was not very systematic in keeping regular notes. This perhaps happened due to the fact that I did not take reflective journaling very seriously. Now, while presenting it in the form an organized journal, I see that that would have been better to keep an organized n ote. As I allow the work to guide me, I see that it generates a conscious intention in me, and it becomes a contemplative practice. In this journal I would reflect upon this process of transition in me to examine how well I did my work, and what could have been done better to make my practice more fruitful.When I was intimated that I would be required to take teaching session on contagious diseases and method of prevention through isolation to a group of 20 people comprising of registered nurses and nursing students, I was immediately very nervous. As a registered nurse I am quite confident about the principles of infection prevention in our hospital, but knowing things and teaching things are different. This would be practice of learning, and the first question I asked to myself was, whether I was competent enough (Nursing Council of Hong Kong, 2004). This was an education programme designed to provide the nurses necessary skills, knowledge, and attitudes to practice in future in t heir respective roles. Those who were registered nurses and belonged to the group of students, this session would definitely need to be designed to refine their skills and update their knowledge. Ultimately, these educations would serve to contribute to the maintenance of high standards in practice delivering the best possible care. I questioned myself about whether it was necessary or not. It is true that this teaching would at least promote life-long learning in the constantly changing requirement of standards of service. This topic would definitely relevant to the leaning and practice needs of the group. The students are expected to undertake infectious diseases nursing following the completion of the course. Only thing I could not clearly saw was what would be taught and why that would be taught. It would need a curriculum model, and given the mixed nature of the group, learning would be seen as a change in the observable behaviour of the students in practice, but it should be a process. I understand that this programme would be much more focused on the development of understanding (Paterson, B.L. & Pratt, D.D., 2007). I decided that in my introduction to the training programme, I would highlight these points, so students may participate in a more active manner. Given the fact that I am a first-time teacher, I also made a note that I would familiarize myself with the curriculum design of the course. Week 2 The teaching should occur according to the learning needs of the students. I was not an educationist, but it was immediately very important for me to know and design the content of my course (Beitz, J. M., 1996). To be able to do that, I had to first examine the philosophy on which the curriculum would be based on. Moreover, it should need facilitation in a very careful manner to link with the feelings and thinking of the participant taking care of the practice relevance. The topic that has been assigned to me is relevant to practice, since infectious

Competency of student nurses in the operating room Essay Example for Free

Competency of student nurses in the operating room Essay LEGEND: 4-Competent (Student performs consistently in an effective and efficient manner) 3-Progress Acceptable (performance is usually effective and efficient but not always) 2-Needs Improvement (progress in performance is too slow to judge satisfactorily; task performance is not done properly for majority of the time0 1-Progress Unacceptable (no progress in performance has been demonstrated and/ or performance is consistently ineffective and inefficient) CORE COMPETENCY SCORE REMARKS A. safe and quality nursing care 1. utilizes the nursing process in the care of OR client a. Obtains comprehensive client’s information by checking complete accomplishment of the preoperative checklist/ clients chart b. Identifies priority needs of the client at the Operating Room c. Provides needed nursing interventions based on identified needs d. Monitors client’s responses to surgery 2. Promotes safety and comfort of patients inside the OR a. Transports client safely from the unit to OR b. Transfer client safely from the stretcher to OR bed, OR bed to stretcher, stretcher to RR bed (e.g. use of side rails) c. Places properly grounding pad under the patient for electro-surgical equipment d. Monitor vital signs e. Provides physical comfort utilizing comfort devices/ techniques f. Provides needed blankets and sheets to prevent hypothermia and provide privacy g. Assist in proper and safe positioning of clients in preparation for surgery h. Observes the principles of strict surgical aseptic techniques within the work area at all times i. Observes universal precautions in handling body fluids 3. Performs the functions of the scrub nurse a. Drapes the operative field correctly b. Performs surgical scrub correctly c. Dons surgical gowns and gloves correctly d. Serves gowns, gloves and drapes aseptically e. Prepared surgical instruments, sponges, sutures and other supplies in functional agreement f. Hands instruments, sponges, sutures and other materials according to surgeon’s preference g. Performs surgical count accurately h. Performs after care of the surgical instruments 4. Performs the functions of the circulating nurse a. Prepared the surgical table and all needed equipment and supplies for surgery b. Assist the anesthesiologist in the induction of anesthesia c. Performs the surgical skin preparation of the client d. Checks with the scrub nurse the completeness of surgical sponges, needles and instruments e. Anticipates the needs of the surgical team f. Ensures intactness and functionality of all contraptions ( e.g. IVF; BT; IFC; NGT) g. Helps in the after care of all equipment and the OR as a whole h. Hand additional instruments and supplies aseptically as needed i. Check sheet integrity and sterility of OR packs i.1. Sets up the OR Room needed equipment i.2. Receives client for surgery/ endorses client post-operatively i.3. Assists in skin preparation and draping of client 5. Administer medications and other health therapeutics safely 6. Executes legal orders of the surgeon/ anesthesiologist accurately and timely 7. Evaluates patient’s response to interventions 8. Monitors patients progress during surgery and immediate post-op phase B. Management of resources and environment 1. Ensures availability, completeness and functionality of OR equipments 2. Observes protocols in unrestricted, semi-restricted and restricted areas in the OR 3. Performs proper disinfection and sterilization protocols 4. Observes proper disposal of hazardous and non hazardous wastes. Observes proper handling and up keeping of OR resources 5. Observes OR policies, procedures and protocols on infection control 6. Conducts inventory of OR resources 7. Awareness of the institutional evacuation and location plan both for fire, earthquake and other major emergencies. C. Health Education 1. Implements appropriate health education activities to client based on needs assessment of the intra-operative client 2. Reinforces pre-operative health teachings to client D. Legal Responsibility 1. Adheres to legal and institutional protocols regarding informed consent and other legal documents E. Ethico- Moral Responsibility 1. Respects the rights of the OR client 2. Accepts responsibility and accountability for own decision and actions as an OR nurse 3. Maintains privacy and confidentiality of client’s information 4. Adheres to the Code of Ethics for Nurses F. Personal and Professional Development 1. Performs OR functions and according to professional standards 2. Possesses positive attitude towards learning surgical and OR-related knowledge and skills G. Quality Improvement 1. Reports significant actual or potential observations regarding the surgical client 2. Reports positive or negative variances at the OR 3. Identifies and reports variances in sterility and other OR activities H. Research 1. Disseminates results of OR-related research findings to clinical group and other members of the OR team as appropriate I. Records Management 1. Maintain legible, accurate and updated documentation of patient care in the chart/ and OR dorms 2. Submits timely, complete an accurate surgical slips and Or write-ups for cases handled J. Communication 1. Utilizes therapeutic communication skills with patients, significant others and members of the health team 2. Establishes professional relationships with members of the surgical/ health team 3. Utilizes proper channel of communication 4. Observes complete and accurate endorsement procedures 5. Uses appropriate information mechanism to facilitate communication inside the OR and with other departments in the hospital K. Collaboration and Teamwork 1. Collaborates plan of care with other members of the health team

Features of Transport Layer Security (TLS)

Features of Transport Layer Security (TLS)   TRANSPORT LAYER SECURITY TLS is a successor to Secure Sockets Layer protocol. TLS provides secure communications on the Internet for such things as e-mail, Internet faxing, and other data transfers. There are slight differences between SSL 3.0 and TLS 1.0, but the protocol remains significantly the same. It is good idea to keep in mind that TLS resides on the Application Layer of the OSI model. This will save you a lot of frustrations while debugging and troubleshooting encryption troubles connected to TLS.   TLS Features TLS is a generic application layer security protocol that runs over reliable transport. It provides a secure channel to application protocol clients. This channel has three primary security features: Authentication of the server. Confidentiality of the communication channel. Message integrity of the communication channel. Optionally TLS can also provide authentication of the client. In general, TLS authentication uses public key based digital signatures backed by certificates. Thus, the server authenticates either by decrypting a secret encrypted under his public key or by signing an ephemeral public key. The client authenticates by signing a random challenge. Server certificates typically contain the servers domain name. Client certificates can contain arbitrary identities.   The Handshake Protocols The TLS Handshake Protocol allows the server and client to authenticate each other and to negotiate an encryption algorithm and cryptographic keys before data is exchanged. In a typical scenario, only the server is authenticated and its identity is ensured while the client remains unauthenticated. The mutual authentication of the servers requires public key deployment to clients. Provide security parameters to the record layer. A Client sends a ClientHello message specifying the highest TLS protocol version it supports, a random number, a list of suggested cipher suites and compression methods. The Server responds with a ServerHello, containing the chosen protocol version, a random number, cipher, and compression method from the choices offered by the client. The Server sends its Certificate (depending on the selected cipher, this may be omitted by the Server). The server may request a certificate from the client, so that the connection can be mutually authenticated, using a Certificate Request. The Server sends a ServerHelloDone message, indicating it is done with handshake negotiation. The Client responds with a ClientKeyExchange which may contain a PreMasterSecret, public key, or nothing. (Again, this depends on the selected cipher). The Handshake protocol provides a number of security functions. Such as Authentication, Encryption, Hash Algorithms  · Authentication A certificate is a digital form of identification that is usually issued by a certification authority (CA) and contains identification information, a validity period, a public key, a serial number, and the digital signature of the issuer. For authentication purposes, the Handshake Protocol uses an X.509 certificate to provide strong evidence to a second party that helps prove the identity of the party that holds the certificate and the corresponding private key.  · Encryption There are two main types of encryption: symmetric key (also known as Private Key) and asymmetric key (also known as public key. TLS/SSL uses symmetric key for bulk encryption and public key for authentication and key exchange.  · Hash Algorithms A hash is a one-way mapping of values to a smaller set of representative values, so that the size of the resulting hash is smaller than the original message and the hash is unique to the original data. A hash is similar to a fingerprint: a fingerprint is unique to the individual and is much smaller than the original person. Hashing is used to establish data integrity during transport. Two common hash algorithms are Message Digest5 (MD5) produce 128-bit hash value and Standard Hash Algorithm1 (SHA-1) produce 160-bit value.   The Change Cipher Spec The Change Cipher Spec Protocol signals a transition of the cipher suite to be used on the connection between the client and server. This protocol is composed of a single message which is encrypted and compressed with the current cipher suite. This message consists of a single byte with the value1. Message after this will be encrypted and compressed using the new cipher suite.   The Alert The Alert Protocol includes event-driven alert messages that can be sent from either party. the session is either ended or the recipient is given the choice of whether or not to end the session. Schannel SSP will only generate these alert messages at the request of the application.   The Record Layer/Protocol The TLS record protocol is a simple framing layer with record format as shown below: struct { ContentType type; ProtocolVersion version; uint16 length; opaque payload[length]; } TLSRecord; As with TLS, data is carried in records. In both protocols, records can only be processed when the entire record is available. The Record Layer might have four functions: It fragments the data coming from the application into manageable blocks (and reassemble incoming data to pass up to the application). Schannel SSP does not support fragmentation at the Record Layer. It compresses the data and decompresses incoming data. Schannel SSP does not support compression at the Record Layer. It applies a Message Authentication Code (MAC), or hash/digest, to the data and uses the MAC to verify incoming data. It encrypts the hashed data and decrypts incoming data.   Application Protocol TLS runs on application protocol such as HTTP, FTP, SMTP, NNTP, and XMPP and above a reliable transport protocol, TCP for example. While it can add security to any protocol that uses reliable connections (such as TCP), it is most commonly used with HTTP to form HTTPS. HTTPS is used to secure World Wide Web pages for applications such as electronic commerce and asset management. These applications use public key certificates to verify the identity of endpoints.   TSL/ SSL Security The client may use the CAs public key to validate the CAs digital signature on the server certificate. If the digital signature can be verified, the client accepts the server certificate as a valid certificate issued by a trusted CA. The client verifies that the issuing Certificate Authority (CA) is on its list of trusted Cas. The client checks the servers certificate validity period. The authentication process stops if the current date and time fall outside of the validity period.   IPSec IPSec acts at the network layer, protecting and authenticating IP packets between participating IPSec devices (peers), such as PIX Firewalls, Cisco routers, Cisco VPN 3000 Concentrators, Cisco VPN Clients, and other IPSec-compliant products. IPSec is not bound to any specific encryption or authentication algorithms, keying technology, or security algorithms. IPSec is a framework of open standards. Because it isnt bound to specific algorithms, IPSec allows newer and better algorithms to be implemented without patching the existing IPSec standards. IPSec provides data confidentiality, data integrity, and data origin authentication between participating peers at the IP layer. IPSec is used to secure a path between a pair of gateways, a pair of hosts, or a gateway and a host. Some of the standard algorithms are as follows: Data Encryption Standard (DES) algorithm—Used to encrypt and decrypt packet data. 3DES algorithm—effectively doubles encryption strength over 56-bit DES. Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)—a newer cipher algorithm designed to replace DES. Has a variable key length between 128 and 256 bits. Cisco is the first industry vendor to implement AES on all its VPN-capable platforms. Message Digest 5 (MD5) algorithm—Used to authenticate packet data. Secure Hash Algorithm 1 (SHA-1)—Used to authenticate packet data. Diffie-Hellman (DH)—a public-key cryptography protocol that allows two parties to establish a shared secret key used by encryption and hash algorithms (for example, DES and MD5) over an insecure communications channel. IPSec security services provide four critical functions: Confidentiality (encryption)—the sender can encrypt the packets before transmitting them across a network. By doing so, no one can eavesdrop on the communication. If intercepted, the communications cannot be read. Data integrity—the receiver can verify that the data was transmitted through the Internet without being changed or altered in any way. Origin authentication—the receiver can authenticate the packets source, guaranteeing and certifying the source of the information. Anti-replay protection—Anti-replay protection verifies that each packet is unique, not duplicated. IPSec packets are protected by comparing the sequence number of the received packets and a sliding window on the destination host, or security gateway. Late and duplicate packets are dropped. v How IPSec works The goal of IPSec is to protect the desired data with the needed security services. IPSecs operation can be broken into five primary steps: Define interesting traffic—Traffic is deemed interesting when the VPN device recognizes that the traffic you want to send needs to be protected. IKE Phase 1—This basic set of security services protects all subsequent communications between the peers. IKE Phase 1 sets up a secure communications channel between peers. IKE Phase 2—IKE negotiates IPSec security association (SA) parameters and sets up matching IPSec SAs in the peers. These security parameters are used to protect data and messages exchanged between endpoints. Data transfer—Data is transferred between IPSec peers based on the IPSec parameters and keys stored in the SA database. IPSec tunnel termination—IPSec SAs terminate through deletion or by timing out. TASK 1(b) IPSecs advantage over TLS: It has more plasticity on choosing the Authentication mechanisms (like the Pre Shared Key), and therefore makes it hard for the attacker to do man in the middle.TLS is based only on Public key and with tools, its possible to do man in the Middle breaking TLS. Going one step down the OSI stack, IP Security (IPSec) guarantees the data privacy and integrity of IP packets, regardless of how the application used the sockets. This means any application, as long as it uses IP to send data, will benefit from the underlying secure IP network. Nothing has to be rewritten or modified; it even is possible that users wont be aware their data is being processed through encrypting devices. This solution is the most transparent one for end users and the one most likely to be adopted in the future in the widest range of situations. The main drawback of IPSsec lies in its intrinsic infrastructural complexity, which demands several components to work properly. IPSec deployment must be planned and carri ed out by network administrators, and it is less likely to be adopted directly by end users. TLSs advantage over IPSec: The advantage of TLS over generic application-level security mechanisms is the application no longer has the burden of encrypting user data. Using a special socket and API, the communication is secured. The problem with TLS is an application wishing to exploit its functionality must be written explicitly in order to do so (see Resources). Existing applications, which constitute the majority of data producers on the Internet, cannot take advantage of the encryption facilities provided by TLS without being rewritten. Think of the common applications we use everyday: mail clients, web browsers on sites without HTTPS, IRC channels, peer-to-peer file sharing systems and so on. Also, most network services (such as mail relays, DNS servers, routing protocols) currently run over plain sockets, exchanging vital information as clear text and only seldomly adopting application-level counter-measures (mostly integrity checks, such as MD5 sums).   IGMP IGMP is a protocol used by IP hosts, and adjacent multicast network devices to identify their memberships. If they are part of the same multicast group they communicate with each other. ICMP communicates 1 to 1.IGMP communicates 1 to many.   Establish Multicast group We describe a distributed architecture for managing multicast addresses in the global Internet. A multicast address space partitioning scheme is proposed, based on the Unicast host address and a per-host address management entity. By noting that port numbers are an integral part of end-to-end multicast addressing we present a single, unified solution to the two problems of dynamic multicast address management and port resolution. We then present a framework for the evaluation of multicast address management schemes, and use it to compare our design with three approaches, as well as a random allocation strategy. The criteria used for the evaluation are blocking probability and consistency, address acquisition delay, the load on address management entities, robustness against failures, and processing and communications overhead. With the distributed scheme the probability of blocking for address acquisition is reduced by several orders of magnitude, to insignificant levels, while consi stency is maintained. At the same time, the address acquisition delay is reduced to a minimum by serving the request within the host itself. It is also shown that the scheme generates much less control traffic, is more robust against failures, and puts much less load on address management entities as compared with the other three schemes. The random allocation strategy is shown to be attractive primarily due to its simplicity, although it does have several drawbacks stemming from its lack of consistency (addresses may be allocated more than once) The Routing and Remote Access administrative tool is used to enable routing on a Windows 2000 server that is multihomed (has more than one network card). Windows 2000 professional cannot be a router. The Routing and Remote Access administrative tool or the route command line utility can be used to con a static router and add a routing table. A routing table is required for static routing. Dynamic routing does not require a routing table since the table is built by software. Dynamic routing does require additional protocols to be installed on the computer. When using the Routing and Remote Access tool, the following information is entered: Interface Specify the network card that the route applies to which is where the packets will come from. Destination Specify the network address that the packets are going to such as 192.168.1.0. Network Mask The subnet mask of the destination network. Gateway The IP address of the network card on the network that is cond to forward the packets such as 192.168.1.1. Metric The number of routers that packets must pass through to reach the intended network. If there are more than 1, the Gateway address will not match the network address of the destination network.   Dynamic Routing Windows 2000 Server supports Network Address Translation (NAT) and DHCP relay agent. Three Windows 2000 supported Dynamic routing protocols are: Routing Information Protocol (RIP) version 2 for IP Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) version 2 with router or proxy support. The Routing and Remote Access tool is used to install, con, and monitor these protocols and routing functions. After any of these dynamic routing protocols are installed, they must be cond to use one or more routing interfaces.   Protocol Independent Multicast (PIM): This document describes an architecture for efficiently routing to multicast groups that may span wide-area (and inter-domain) internets. We refer to the approach as Protocol Independent Multicast (PIM) because it is not dependent on any particular unicast routing protocol. The most significant innovation in this architecture is the efficient support of sparse, wide area groups. This sparse mode (SM) of operation complements the traditional { dense-mode} approach to multicast routing for campus networks, as developed by Deering [2][3] and implemented previously in MOSPF and DVMRP [4][5]. These traditional dense mode multicast schemes were intended for use within regions where a group is widely represented or bandwidth is universally plentiful. However, when group members, and senders to those group members, are distributed sparsely across a wide area, these schemes are not efficient; data packets (in the case of DVMRP) or membership report information (in the case of MOSPF) are occasionally sent over many links that do not lead to receivers or senders, respectively. The purpose of this work is to develop a multicast routing architecture that efficiently establishes distribution trees even when some or all members are sparsely distributed. Efficiency is evaluated in terms of the state, control message, and data packet overhead required across the entire network in order to deliver data packets to the members of the group.   The Protocol Independent Multicast (PIM) architecture: maintains the traditional IP multicast service model of receiver-initiated membership; can be cond to adapt to different multicast group and network characteristics; is not dependent on a specific unicast routing protocol; uses soft-state mechanisms to adapt to underlying network conditions and group dynamics. The robustness, flexibility, and scaling properties of this architecture make it well suited to large heterogeneous inter-networks. This document describes an architecture for efficiently routing to multicast groups that may span wide-area (and inter-domain) internets. We refer to the approach as Protocol Independent Multicast (PIM) because it is not dependent on any particular unicast routing protocol. The most significant innovation in this architecture is the efficient support of sparse, wide area groups. This sparse mode (SM) of operation complements the traditional { dense-mode} approach to multicast routing for campus networks, as developed by Deering [2][3] and implemented previously in MOSPF and DVMRP [4][5]. These traditional dense mode multicast schemes were intended for use within regions where a group is widely represented or bandwidth is universally plentiful. However, when group members, and senders to those group members, are distributed sparsely across a wide area, these schemes are not efficient; data packets (in the case of DVMRP) or membership report information (in the case of MOSPF) are occas ionally sent over many links that do not lead to receivers or senders, respectively. The purpose of this work is to develop a multicast routing architecture that efficiently establishes distribution trees even when some or all members are sparsely distributed. Efficiency is evaluated in terms of the state, control message, and data packet overhead required across the entire network in order to deliver data packets to the members of the group. A user of an internet- connected pc, Adam; send an email message to another internet connected pc user beryl. 1. Outlinethe function of four internet host that would normally be involved be involved in this task. . : 1. Adams Computer : :2. Server of Adams Internet Service Provider : : 3. Server of Beryls Internet Service Provider: :4. Beryls Computer : . This program allows you to build and deal with a large mailing list, and to create modified messages from predefined templates while sending. It lets you define multiple independent SMTP server connections and will utilize the latest in multithreading technology, to send emails to you as fast as it is possible. You can use all the standard message formats like plain text, HTML or even create a rich content message in the Microsoft Outlook Express and export it into the program. The interface of the program is very simple and easy to learn nearly all functions can be performed using hotkeys on the keyboard. E-mail is a growing source of an enterprises records and needs to be treated as any written memo, letter or report has been treated. The information in e-mail has the potential to add to the enterprises knowledge assets, from interactions with the users or customers in the enterprise to interactions with colleagues overseas. 2. List the internet protocol which would be used in this task. Internet Protocol (IP) is packet-based protocol that allows dissimilar hosts to connect to each other for the purpose of delivering data across the resulting networks. Applications combine IP with a higher- level protocol called Transport Control Protocol (TCP), which establishes a virtual connection between a destination and a source. IP by itself is something like the postal system. It allows you to address a package and drop it in the system, but theres no direct link between you and the recipient. . : 1. HTTP : :2. IMAP(Version 4): : 3.SMTP : :4.POP (Version 3) : .   HTTP (Hyper-Text Transfer Protocol) is the underlying protocol used by the World Wide Web. HTTP defines how messages are formatted and transmitted, and what actions Web servers and browsers should take in response to various commands. HTTP/1.0, as defined by RFC 1945 [6], improved the protocol by allowing messages to be in the format of MIME-like messages, containing meta information about the data transferred and modifiers on the request/response semantics.   IMAP4 (Internet Message Access Protocol) A mail protocol that provides management of received messages on a remote server. The user can review headers, create or delete folders/mailboxes and messages, and search contents remotely without downloading. It includes more functions than the similar POP protocol.   POP3 (Post Office Protocol 3) is the most recent version of a standard protocol for receiving e-mail. POP3 is a client/server protocol in which e-mail is received and held for you by your Internet server. Periodically, you (or your client e-mail receiver) check your mail-box on the server and download any mail, probably using POP3. This standard protocol is built into most popular e-mail products, such as Eudora and Outlook Express. Its also built into the Netscape and Microsoft Internet Explorer browsers. POP3 is designed to delete mail on the server as soon as the user has downloaded it. However, some implementations allow users or an administrator to specify that mail be saved for some period of time. POP can be thought of as a store-and-forward service.   SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is a TCP/IP protocol used in sending and receiving e-mail. However, since it is limited in its ability to queue messages at the receiving end, it is usually used with one of two other protocols, POP3 or IMAP, that let the user save messages in a server mailbox and download them periodically from the server. In other words, users typically use a program that uses SMTP for sending e-mail and either POP3 or IMAP for receiving e-mail. On Unix-based systems, send mail is the most widely-used SMTP server for e-mail. A commercial package, Send mail, includes a POP3 server. Microsoft Exchange includes an SMTP server and can also be set up to include POP3 support. SMTP usually is implemented to operate over Internet port 25. An alternative to SMTP that is widely used in Europe is X.400. Many mail servers now support Extended Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (ESMTP), which allows multimedia files to be delivered as e-mail. 3. Taking the case that the message include the text please find attached abstract and 1. as well as in MS-Word format and an attachment in jpeg, list format of the send mail messages. .. : 1. MIME : ..   MIME (Multi-Purpose Internet Mail Extensions) is an extension of the original Internet e-mail protocol that lets people use the protocol to exchange different kinds of data files on the Internet: audio, video, images, application programs, and other kinds, as well as the ASCII text handled in the original protocol, the Simple Mail Transport Protocol (SMTP). In 1991, Nathan Borenstein of Bellcore proposed to the IETF that SMTP be extended so that Internet (but mainly Web) clients and servers could recognize and handle other kinds of data than ASCII text. As a result, new file types were added to mail as a supported Internet Protocol file type. Servers insert the MIME header at the beginning of any Web transmission. Clients use this header to select an appropriate player application for the type of data the header indicates. Some of these players are built into the Web client or browser (for example, all browsers come with GIF and JPEG image players as well as the ability to handle HTML files). 4. How would received message differ the sent messages? The email address that receives messages sent from users who click  ¿Ã‚ ½reply ¿Ã‚ ½ in their email clients. Can differ from the  ¿Ã‚ ½from ¿Ã‚ ½address which can be an automated or unmonitored email address used only to send messages to a distribution list.  ¿Ã‚ ½Reply-to ¿Ã‚ ½ should always be a monitored address.   IPv4: Internet Protocol (Version 4) The Internet Protocol (IP) is a network-layer (Layer 3) protocol in the OSI model that contains addressing information and some control information to enable packets being routed in network. IP is the primary network-layer protocol in the TCP/IP protocol suite. Along with the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), IP represents the heart of the Internet protocols. IP is equally well suited for both LAN and WAN communications. IP (Internet Protocol) has two primary responsibilities: providing connectionless, best-effort delivery of datagrams through a network; and providing fragmentation and reassembly of datagrams to support data links with different maximum-transmission unit (MTU) sizes. The IP addressing scheme is integral to the process of routing IP datagrams through an internetwork. Each IP address has specific components and follows a basic format. These IP addresses can be subdivided and used to create addresses for sub networks. Each computer (known as host) on a TCP/IP network is assigned a unique logical address (32-bit in IPv4) that is divided into two main parts: the network number and the host number. The network number identifies a network and must be assigned by the Internet Network Information Center (InterNIC) if the network is to be part of the Internet. An Internet Service Provider (ISP) can obtain blocks of network addresses from the InterNIC and can itself assign address space as nece ssary. The host number identifies a host on a network and is assigned by the local network administrator.   IPv6 (IPng): Internet Protocol version 6 IPv6 is the new version of Internet Protocol (IP) based on IPv4, a network-layer (Layer 3) protocol that contains addressing information and some control information enabling packets to be routed in the network. There are two basic IP versions: IPv4 and IPv6. IPv6 is also called next generation IP or IPng. IPv4 and IPv6 are de-multiplexed at the media layer. For example, IPv6 packets are carried over Ethernet with the content type 86DD (hexadecimal) instead of IPv4s 0800. The IPv4 is described in separate documents. IPv6 increases the IP address size from 32 bits to 128 bits, to support more levels of addressing hierarchy, a much greater number of addressable nodes, and simpler auto-configuration of addresses. IPv6 addresses are expressed in hexadecimal format (base 16) which allows not only numerals (0-9) but a few characters as well (a-f). A sample ipv6 address looks like: 3ffe: ffff: 100:f101:210:a4ff:fee3:9566. Scalability of multicast addresses is introduced. A new type of address called an any cast address is also defined, to send a packet to any one of a group of nodes. Two major improvements in IPv6 vs. v4: * Improved support for extensions and options IPv6 options are placed in separate headers that are located between the IPv6 header and the transport layer header. Changes in the way IP header options are encoded to allow more efficient forwarding, less stringent limits on the length of options, and greater flexibility for introducing new options in the future.  · Flow labeling capability A new capability has been added to enable the labeling of packets belonging to particular traffic flows for which the sender requests special handling, such as non-default Quality of Service or real-time service.   Comparison between IPv6 with IPv4 Data structure of IPv6 has modified as follows: Header length field found in IPv4 is removed in IPv6. Type of Service field found in IPv4 has been replaced with Priority field in IPv6. Time to live field found in IPv4 has been replaced with Hop Limit in IPv6. Total Length field has been replaced with Payload Length field Protocol field has been replaced with Next Header field Source Address and Destination Address has been increased from 32-bits to 128-bits.   Major Similarities IPv6 with IPv4 Both protocols provide loopback addresses. IPv6 multicast achieves the same purpose that IPv4 broadcast does. Both allow the user to determine datagram size, and the maximum number of hops before termination. Both provide connectionless delivery service (datagrams routed independently). Both are best effort datagram delivery services.   Major Differences between IPv6 with IPv4 IPv6 host to IPv6 host routing via IPv4 network: Here, IPv6 over IPv4 tunneling is required to send a datagram. IPv6 packets are encapsulated within IPv4 packets, allowing travel over IPv4 routing infrastructures to reach an IPv6 host on the other side of the .IPv6 over IPv4 tunnel. The two different types of tunneling are automatic and cond. For a cond tunnel, the IPv6 to IPv4 mappings, at tunnel endpoints, have to be manually specified. Automatic tunneling eases tunneling, but nullifies the advantages of using the 128-bit address space. IPv6 host to IPv4 host and vice versa: The device that converts IPv6 packets to IPv4 packets (a dual IP stack/ dual stack router) allows a host to access both IPv4 and IPv6 resources for communication. A dual IP stack routes as well as converts between IPv4 and IPv6 datagrams ICMP: IPv6 enhances ICMP with ICMPv6. The messages are grouped as informational and error. An ICMPv6 message can contain much more information. The rules for message handling are stricter. ICMPv6 uses the Neighbor Discovery Protocol. New messages have been added also. Absence of ARP RARP: Features of Transport Layer Security (TLS) Features of Transport Layer Security (TLS)   TRANSPORT LAYER SECURITY TLS is a successor to Secure Sockets Layer protocol. TLS provides secure communications on the Internet for such things as e-mail, Internet faxing, and other data transfers. There are slight differences between SSL 3.0 and TLS 1.0, but the protocol remains significantly the same. It is good idea to keep in mind that TLS resides on the Application Layer of the OSI model. This will save you a lot of frustrations while debugging and troubleshooting encryption troubles connected to TLS.   TLS Features TLS is a generic application layer security protocol that runs over reliable transport. It provides a secure channel to application protocol clients. This channel has three primary security features: Authentication of the server. Confidentiality of the communication channel. Message integrity of the communication channel. Optionally TLS can also provide authentication of the client. In general, TLS authentication uses public key based digital signatures backed by certificates. Thus, the server authenticates either by decrypting a secret encrypted under his public key or by signing an ephemeral public key. The client authenticates by signing a random challenge. Server certificates typically contain the servers domain name. Client certificates can contain arbitrary identities.   The Handshake Protocols The TLS Handshake Protocol allows the server and client to authenticate each other and to negotiate an encryption algorithm and cryptographic keys before data is exchanged. In a typical scenario, only the server is authenticated and its identity is ensured while the client remains unauthenticated. The mutual authentication of the servers requires public key deployment to clients. Provide security parameters to the record layer. A Client sends a ClientHello message specifying the highest TLS protocol version it supports, a random number, a list of suggested cipher suites and compression methods. The Server responds with a ServerHello, containing the chosen protocol version, a random number, cipher, and compression method from the choices offered by the client. The Server sends its Certificate (depending on the selected cipher, this may be omitted by the Server). The server may request a certificate from the client, so that the connection can be mutually authenticated, using a Certificate Request. The Server sends a ServerHelloDone message, indicating it is done with handshake negotiation. The Client responds with a ClientKeyExchange which may contain a PreMasterSecret, public key, or nothing. (Again, this depends on the selected cipher). The Handshake protocol provides a number of security functions. Such as Authentication, Encryption, Hash Algorithms  · Authentication A certificate is a digital form of identification that is usually issued by a certification authority (CA) and contains identification information, a validity period, a public key, a serial number, and the digital signature of the issuer. For authentication purposes, the Handshake Protocol uses an X.509 certificate to provide strong evidence to a second party that helps prove the identity of the party that holds the certificate and the corresponding private key.  · Encryption There are two main types of encryption: symmetric key (also known as Private Key) and asymmetric key (also known as public key. TLS/SSL uses symmetric key for bulk encryption and public key for authentication and key exchange.  · Hash Algorithms A hash is a one-way mapping of values to a smaller set of representative values, so that the size of the resulting hash is smaller than the original message and the hash is unique to the original data. A hash is similar to a fingerprint: a fingerprint is unique to the individual and is much smaller than the original person. Hashing is used to establish data integrity during transport. Two common hash algorithms are Message Digest5 (MD5) produce 128-bit hash value and Standard Hash Algorithm1 (SHA-1) produce 160-bit value.   The Change Cipher Spec The Change Cipher Spec Protocol signals a transition of the cipher suite to be used on the connection between the client and server. This protocol is composed of a single message which is encrypted and compressed with the current cipher suite. This message consists of a single byte with the value1. Message after this will be encrypted and compressed using the new cipher suite.   The Alert The Alert Protocol includes event-driven alert messages that can be sent from either party. the session is either ended or the recipient is given the choice of whether or not to end the session. Schannel SSP will only generate these alert messages at the request of the application.   The Record Layer/Protocol The TLS record protocol is a simple framing layer with record format as shown below: struct { ContentType type; ProtocolVersion version; uint16 length; opaque payload[length]; } TLSRecord; As with TLS, data is carried in records. In both protocols, records can only be processed when the entire record is available. The Record Layer might have four functions: It fragments the data coming from the application into manageable blocks (and reassemble incoming data to pass up to the application). Schannel SSP does not support fragmentation at the Record Layer. It compresses the data and decompresses incoming data. Schannel SSP does not support compression at the Record Layer. It applies a Message Authentication Code (MAC), or hash/digest, to the data and uses the MAC to verify incoming data. It encrypts the hashed data and decrypts incoming data.   Application Protocol TLS runs on application protocol such as HTTP, FTP, SMTP, NNTP, and XMPP and above a reliable transport protocol, TCP for example. While it can add security to any protocol that uses reliable connections (such as TCP), it is most commonly used with HTTP to form HTTPS. HTTPS is used to secure World Wide Web pages for applications such as electronic commerce and asset management. These applications use public key certificates to verify the identity of endpoints.   TSL/ SSL Security The client may use the CAs public key to validate the CAs digital signature on the server certificate. If the digital signature can be verified, the client accepts the server certificate as a valid certificate issued by a trusted CA. The client verifies that the issuing Certificate Authority (CA) is on its list of trusted Cas. The client checks the servers certificate validity period. The authentication process stops if the current date and time fall outside of the validity period.   IPSec IPSec acts at the network layer, protecting and authenticating IP packets between participating IPSec devices (peers), such as PIX Firewalls, Cisco routers, Cisco VPN 3000 Concentrators, Cisco VPN Clients, and other IPSec-compliant products. IPSec is not bound to any specific encryption or authentication algorithms, keying technology, or security algorithms. IPSec is a framework of open standards. Because it isnt bound to specific algorithms, IPSec allows newer and better algorithms to be implemented without patching the existing IPSec standards. IPSec provides data confidentiality, data integrity, and data origin authentication between participating peers at the IP layer. IPSec is used to secure a path between a pair of gateways, a pair of hosts, or a gateway and a host. Some of the standard algorithms are as follows: Data Encryption Standard (DES) algorithm—Used to encrypt and decrypt packet data. 3DES algorithm—effectively doubles encryption strength over 56-bit DES. Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)—a newer cipher algorithm designed to replace DES. Has a variable key length between 128 and 256 bits. Cisco is the first industry vendor to implement AES on all its VPN-capable platforms. Message Digest 5 (MD5) algorithm—Used to authenticate packet data. Secure Hash Algorithm 1 (SHA-1)—Used to authenticate packet data. Diffie-Hellman (DH)—a public-key cryptography protocol that allows two parties to establish a shared secret key used by encryption and hash algorithms (for example, DES and MD5) over an insecure communications channel. IPSec security services provide four critical functions: Confidentiality (encryption)—the sender can encrypt the packets before transmitting them across a network. By doing so, no one can eavesdrop on the communication. If intercepted, the communications cannot be read. Data integrity—the receiver can verify that the data was transmitted through the Internet without being changed or altered in any way. Origin authentication—the receiver can authenticate the packets source, guaranteeing and certifying the source of the information. Anti-replay protection—Anti-replay protection verifies that each packet is unique, not duplicated. IPSec packets are protected by comparing the sequence number of the received packets and a sliding window on the destination host, or security gateway. Late and duplicate packets are dropped. v How IPSec works The goal of IPSec is to protect the desired data with the needed security services. IPSecs operation can be broken into five primary steps: Define interesting traffic—Traffic is deemed interesting when the VPN device recognizes that the traffic you want to send needs to be protected. IKE Phase 1—This basic set of security services protects all subsequent communications between the peers. IKE Phase 1 sets up a secure communications channel between peers. IKE Phase 2—IKE negotiates IPSec security association (SA) parameters and sets up matching IPSec SAs in the peers. These security parameters are used to protect data and messages exchanged between endpoints. Data transfer—Data is transferred between IPSec peers based on the IPSec parameters and keys stored in the SA database. IPSec tunnel termination—IPSec SAs terminate through deletion or by timing out. TASK 1(b) IPSecs advantage over TLS: It has more plasticity on choosing the Authentication mechanisms (like the Pre Shared Key), and therefore makes it hard for the attacker to do man in the middle.TLS is based only on Public key and with tools, its possible to do man in the Middle breaking TLS. Going one step down the OSI stack, IP Security (IPSec) guarantees the data privacy and integrity of IP packets, regardless of how the application used the sockets. This means any application, as long as it uses IP to send data, will benefit from the underlying secure IP network. Nothing has to be rewritten or modified; it even is possible that users wont be aware their data is being processed through encrypting devices. This solution is the most transparent one for end users and the one most likely to be adopted in the future in the widest range of situations. The main drawback of IPSsec lies in its intrinsic infrastructural complexity, which demands several components to work properly. IPSec deployment must be planned and carri ed out by network administrators, and it is less likely to be adopted directly by end users. TLSs advantage over IPSec: The advantage of TLS over generic application-level security mechanisms is the application no longer has the burden of encrypting user data. Using a special socket and API, the communication is secured. The problem with TLS is an application wishing to exploit its functionality must be written explicitly in order to do so (see Resources). Existing applications, which constitute the majority of data producers on the Internet, cannot take advantage of the encryption facilities provided by TLS without being rewritten. Think of the common applications we use everyday: mail clients, web browsers on sites without HTTPS, IRC channels, peer-to-peer file sharing systems and so on. Also, most network services (such as mail relays, DNS servers, routing protocols) currently run over plain sockets, exchanging vital information as clear text and only seldomly adopting application-level counter-measures (mostly integrity checks, such as MD5 sums).   IGMP IGMP is a protocol used by IP hosts, and adjacent multicast network devices to identify their memberships. If they are part of the same multicast group they communicate with each other. ICMP communicates 1 to 1.IGMP communicates 1 to many.   Establish Multicast group We describe a distributed architecture for managing multicast addresses in the global Internet. A multicast address space partitioning scheme is proposed, based on the Unicast host address and a per-host address management entity. By noting that port numbers are an integral part of end-to-end multicast addressing we present a single, unified solution to the two problems of dynamic multicast address management and port resolution. We then present a framework for the evaluation of multicast address management schemes, and use it to compare our design with three approaches, as well as a random allocation strategy. The criteria used for the evaluation are blocking probability and consistency, address acquisition delay, the load on address management entities, robustness against failures, and processing and communications overhead. With the distributed scheme the probability of blocking for address acquisition is reduced by several orders of magnitude, to insignificant levels, while consi stency is maintained. At the same time, the address acquisition delay is reduced to a minimum by serving the request within the host itself. It is also shown that the scheme generates much less control traffic, is more robust against failures, and puts much less load on address management entities as compared with the other three schemes. The random allocation strategy is shown to be attractive primarily due to its simplicity, although it does have several drawbacks stemming from its lack of consistency (addresses may be allocated more than once) The Routing and Remote Access administrative tool is used to enable routing on a Windows 2000 server that is multihomed (has more than one network card). Windows 2000 professional cannot be a router. The Routing and Remote Access administrative tool or the route command line utility can be used to con a static router and add a routing table. A routing table is required for static routing. Dynamic routing does not require a routing table since the table is built by software. Dynamic routing does require additional protocols to be installed on the computer. When using the Routing and Remote Access tool, the following information is entered: Interface Specify the network card that the route applies to which is where the packets will come from. Destination Specify the network address that the packets are going to such as 192.168.1.0. Network Mask The subnet mask of the destination network. Gateway The IP address of the network card on the network that is cond to forward the packets such as 192.168.1.1. Metric The number of routers that packets must pass through to reach the intended network. If there are more than 1, the Gateway address will not match the network address of the destination network.   Dynamic Routing Windows 2000 Server supports Network Address Translation (NAT) and DHCP relay agent. Three Windows 2000 supported Dynamic routing protocols are: Routing Information Protocol (RIP) version 2 for IP Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) version 2 with router or proxy support. The Routing and Remote Access tool is used to install, con, and monitor these protocols and routing functions. After any of these dynamic routing protocols are installed, they must be cond to use one or more routing interfaces.   Protocol Independent Multicast (PIM): This document describes an architecture for efficiently routing to multicast groups that may span wide-area (and inter-domain) internets. We refer to the approach as Protocol Independent Multicast (PIM) because it is not dependent on any particular unicast routing protocol. The most significant innovation in this architecture is the efficient support of sparse, wide area groups. This sparse mode (SM) of operation complements the traditional { dense-mode} approach to multicast routing for campus networks, as developed by Deering [2][3] and implemented previously in MOSPF and DVMRP [4][5]. These traditional dense mode multicast schemes were intended for use within regions where a group is widely represented or bandwidth is universally plentiful. However, when group members, and senders to those group members, are distributed sparsely across a wide area, these schemes are not efficient; data packets (in the case of DVMRP) or membership report information (in the case of MOSPF) are occasionally sent over many links that do not lead to receivers or senders, respectively. The purpose of this work is to develop a multicast routing architecture that efficiently establishes distribution trees even when some or all members are sparsely distributed. Efficiency is evaluated in terms of the state, control message, and data packet overhead required across the entire network in order to deliver data packets to the members of the group.   The Protocol Independent Multicast (PIM) architecture: maintains the traditional IP multicast service model of receiver-initiated membership; can be cond to adapt to different multicast group and network characteristics; is not dependent on a specific unicast routing protocol; uses soft-state mechanisms to adapt to underlying network conditions and group dynamics. The robustness, flexibility, and scaling properties of this architecture make it well suited to large heterogeneous inter-networks. This document describes an architecture for efficiently routing to multicast groups that may span wide-area (and inter-domain) internets. We refer to the approach as Protocol Independent Multicast (PIM) because it is not dependent on any particular unicast routing protocol. The most significant innovation in this architecture is the efficient support of sparse, wide area groups. This sparse mode (SM) of operation complements the traditional { dense-mode} approach to multicast routing for campus networks, as developed by Deering [2][3] and implemented previously in MOSPF and DVMRP [4][5]. These traditional dense mode multicast schemes were intended for use within regions where a group is widely represented or bandwidth is universally plentiful. However, when group members, and senders to those group members, are distributed sparsely across a wide area, these schemes are not efficient; data packets (in the case of DVMRP) or membership report information (in the case of MOSPF) are occas ionally sent over many links that do not lead to receivers or senders, respectively. The purpose of this work is to develop a multicast routing architecture that efficiently establishes distribution trees even when some or all members are sparsely distributed. Efficiency is evaluated in terms of the state, control message, and data packet overhead required across the entire network in order to deliver data packets to the members of the group. A user of an internet- connected pc, Adam; send an email message to another internet connected pc user beryl. 1. Outlinethe function of four internet host that would normally be involved be involved in this task. . : 1. Adams Computer : :2. Server of Adams Internet Service Provider : : 3. Server of Beryls Internet Service Provider: :4. Beryls Computer : . This program allows you to build and deal with a large mailing list, and to create modified messages from predefined templates while sending. It lets you define multiple independent SMTP server connections and will utilize the latest in multithreading technology, to send emails to you as fast as it is possible. You can use all the standard message formats like plain text, HTML or even create a rich content message in the Microsoft Outlook Express and export it into the program. The interface of the program is very simple and easy to learn nearly all functions can be performed using hotkeys on the keyboard. E-mail is a growing source of an enterprises records and needs to be treated as any written memo, letter or report has been treated. The information in e-mail has the potential to add to the enterprises knowledge assets, from interactions with the users or customers in the enterprise to interactions with colleagues overseas. 2. List the internet protocol which would be used in this task. Internet Protocol (IP) is packet-based protocol that allows dissimilar hosts to connect to each other for the purpose of delivering data across the resulting networks. Applications combine IP with a higher- level protocol called Transport Control Protocol (TCP), which establishes a virtual connection between a destination and a source. IP by itself is something like the postal system. It allows you to address a package and drop it in the system, but theres no direct link between you and the recipient. . : 1. HTTP : :2. IMAP(Version 4): : 3.SMTP : :4.POP (Version 3) : .   HTTP (Hyper-Text Transfer Protocol) is the underlying protocol used by the World Wide Web. HTTP defines how messages are formatted and transmitted, and what actions Web servers and browsers should take in response to various commands. HTTP/1.0, as defined by RFC 1945 [6], improved the protocol by allowing messages to be in the format of MIME-like messages, containing meta information about the data transferred and modifiers on the request/response semantics.   IMAP4 (Internet Message Access Protocol) A mail protocol that provides management of received messages on a remote server. The user can review headers, create or delete folders/mailboxes and messages, and search contents remotely without downloading. It includes more functions than the similar POP protocol.   POP3 (Post Office Protocol 3) is the most recent version of a standard protocol for receiving e-mail. POP3 is a client/server protocol in which e-mail is received and held for you by your Internet server. Periodically, you (or your client e-mail receiver) check your mail-box on the server and download any mail, probably using POP3. This standard protocol is built into most popular e-mail products, such as Eudora and Outlook Express. Its also built into the Netscape and Microsoft Internet Explorer browsers. POP3 is designed to delete mail on the server as soon as the user has downloaded it. However, some implementations allow users or an administrator to specify that mail be saved for some period of time. POP can be thought of as a store-and-forward service.   SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is a TCP/IP protocol used in sending and receiving e-mail. However, since it is limited in its ability to queue messages at the receiving end, it is usually used with one of two other protocols, POP3 or IMAP, that let the user save messages in a server mailbox and download them periodically from the server. In other words, users typically use a program that uses SMTP for sending e-mail and either POP3 or IMAP for receiving e-mail. On Unix-based systems, send mail is the most widely-used SMTP server for e-mail. A commercial package, Send mail, includes a POP3 server. Microsoft Exchange includes an SMTP server and can also be set up to include POP3 support. SMTP usually is implemented to operate over Internet port 25. An alternative to SMTP that is widely used in Europe is X.400. Many mail servers now support Extended Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (ESMTP), which allows multimedia files to be delivered as e-mail. 3. Taking the case that the message include the text please find attached abstract and 1. as well as in MS-Word format and an attachment in jpeg, list format of the send mail messages. .. : 1. MIME : ..   MIME (Multi-Purpose Internet Mail Extensions) is an extension of the original Internet e-mail protocol that lets people use the protocol to exchange different kinds of data files on the Internet: audio, video, images, application programs, and other kinds, as well as the ASCII text handled in the original protocol, the Simple Mail Transport Protocol (SMTP). In 1991, Nathan Borenstein of Bellcore proposed to the IETF that SMTP be extended so that Internet (but mainly Web) clients and servers could recognize and handle other kinds of data than ASCII text. As a result, new file types were added to mail as a supported Internet Protocol file type. Servers insert the MIME header at the beginning of any Web transmission. Clients use this header to select an appropriate player application for the type of data the header indicates. Some of these players are built into the Web client or browser (for example, all browsers come with GIF and JPEG image players as well as the ability to handle HTML files). 4. How would received message differ the sent messages? The email address that receives messages sent from users who click  ¿Ã‚ ½reply ¿Ã‚ ½ in their email clients. Can differ from the  ¿Ã‚ ½from ¿Ã‚ ½address which can be an automated or unmonitored email address used only to send messages to a distribution list.  ¿Ã‚ ½Reply-to ¿Ã‚ ½ should always be a monitored address.   IPv4: Internet Protocol (Version 4) The Internet Protocol (IP) is a network-layer (Layer 3) protocol in the OSI model that contains addressing information and some control information to enable packets being routed in network. IP is the primary network-layer protocol in the TCP/IP protocol suite. Along with the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), IP represents the heart of the Internet protocols. IP is equally well suited for both LAN and WAN communications. IP (Internet Protocol) has two primary responsibilities: providing connectionless, best-effort delivery of datagrams through a network; and providing fragmentation and reassembly of datagrams to support data links with different maximum-transmission unit (MTU) sizes. The IP addressing scheme is integral to the process of routing IP datagrams through an internetwork. Each IP address has specific components and follows a basic format. These IP addresses can be subdivided and used to create addresses for sub networks. Each computer (known as host) on a TCP/IP network is assigned a unique logical address (32-bit in IPv4) that is divided into two main parts: the network number and the host number. The network number identifies a network and must be assigned by the Internet Network Information Center (InterNIC) if the network is to be part of the Internet. An Internet Service Provider (ISP) can obtain blocks of network addresses from the InterNIC and can itself assign address space as nece ssary. The host number identifies a host on a network and is assigned by the local network administrator.   IPv6 (IPng): Internet Protocol version 6 IPv6 is the new version of Internet Protocol (IP) based on IPv4, a network-layer (Layer 3) protocol that contains addressing information and some control information enabling packets to be routed in the network. There are two basic IP versions: IPv4 and IPv6. IPv6 is also called next generation IP or IPng. IPv4 and IPv6 are de-multiplexed at the media layer. For example, IPv6 packets are carried over Ethernet with the content type 86DD (hexadecimal) instead of IPv4s 0800. The IPv4 is described in separate documents. IPv6 increases the IP address size from 32 bits to 128 bits, to support more levels of addressing hierarchy, a much greater number of addressable nodes, and simpler auto-configuration of addresses. IPv6 addresses are expressed in hexadecimal format (base 16) which allows not only numerals (0-9) but a few characters as well (a-f). A sample ipv6 address looks like: 3ffe: ffff: 100:f101:210:a4ff:fee3:9566. Scalability of multicast addresses is introduced. A new type of address called an any cast address is also defined, to send a packet to any one of a group of nodes. Two major improvements in IPv6 vs. v4: * Improved support for extensions and options IPv6 options are placed in separate headers that are located between the IPv6 header and the transport layer header. Changes in the way IP header options are encoded to allow more efficient forwarding, less stringent limits on the length of options, and greater flexibility for introducing new options in the future.  · Flow labeling capability A new capability has been added to enable the labeling of packets belonging to particular traffic flows for which the sender requests special handling, such as non-default Quality of Service or real-time service.   Comparison between IPv6 with IPv4 Data structure of IPv6 has modified as follows: Header length field found in IPv4 is removed in IPv6. Type of Service field found in IPv4 has been replaced with Priority field in IPv6. Time to live field found in IPv4 has been replaced with Hop Limit in IPv6. Total Length field has been replaced with Payload Length field Protocol field has been replaced with Next Header field Source Address and Destination Address has been increased from 32-bits to 128-bits.   Major Similarities IPv6 with IPv4 Both protocols provide loopback addresses. IPv6 multicast achieves the same purpose that IPv4 broadcast does. Both allow the user to determine datagram size, and the maximum number of hops before termination. Both provide connectionless delivery service (datagrams routed independently). Both are best effort datagram delivery services.   Major Differences between IPv6 with IPv4 IPv6 host to IPv6 host routing via IPv4 network: Here, IPv6 over IPv4 tunneling is required to send a datagram. IPv6 packets are encapsulated within IPv4 packets, allowing travel over IPv4 routing infrastructures to reach an IPv6 host on the other side of the .IPv6 over IPv4 tunnel. The two different types of tunneling are automatic and cond. For a cond tunnel, the IPv6 to IPv4 mappings, at tunnel endpoints, have to be manually specified. Automatic tunneling eases tunneling, but nullifies the advantages of using the 128-bit address space. IPv6 host to IPv4 host and vice versa: The device that converts IPv6 packets to IPv4 packets (a dual IP stack/ dual stack router) allows a host to access both IPv4 and IPv6 resources for communication. A dual IP stack routes as well as converts between IPv4 and IPv6 datagrams ICMP: IPv6 enhances ICMP with ICMPv6. The messages are grouped as informational and error. An ICMPv6 message can contain much more information. The rules for message handling are stricter. ICMPv6 uses the Neighbor Discovery Protocol. New messages have been added also. Absence of ARP RARP: